NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, Washington, D.C. 20013-7012

Paul G. Risser, Acting Director

The National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) inspires curiosity, discovery, and learning about the natural world through its preeminent research, collections, exhibitions, and education. Established in 1910, today the Museum supports an academic community of over 1,500 and is the largest Smithsonian museum and research unit, as well as the most visited natural history museum in the world, welcoming over six million visitors each year. Among the Museum’s greatest strengths is its ability to increase the visibility, value, and impact of its science by integrating research, collections, exhibitions and education, providing leadership for the wider community of natural history museums.

NMNH scientists, alongside staff from U.S. Government affiliated agencies, including the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), conduct research to increase understanding of the fundamental relationships of all living things and their association with their environment. Their work is done in laboratories and field settings around the world with regional operations in Florida, Alaska, Belize, and Kenya. NMNH researchers use a host of molecular genetics technologies as well as microscopic, ad-vanced metric, and statistical techniques for its studies. Currently, museum departments include anthropology, botany, entomology, invertebrate zoology, mineral sciences, paleobiology and vertebrate zoology.

Science at the National Museum of Natural History contributes to three broad SI theme areas: (1) The Formation and Evolution of the Earth and Similar Planets; (2) Discovering and Understanding Life’s Diversity; and (3) Study of Human Diversity and Culture Change. The goal of the first theme is to conduct original research into the origin and history of Earth and other planets. NMNH contributes to these studies by innovative research drawing on invaluable collections of minerals, rocks, meteorites and data on global volcanic activity. Some primitive meteorites represent the earliest solid matter in the solar system, whereas others reflect the breakup of Earth-like planets during gigantic collisions. This work is now being greatly augmented and extended through collaboration with NASA missions to recover material from Mars, the Moon, and other objects in the solar system. Earth’s own rocks reveal the physical processes of melting, metamorphism, volcanic eruption, crystallization, and deposition. These rocks provide evidence for earth scientists to track the global motions of tectonic plates, the dominant mechanism by which Earth cools and loses heat to the surrounding cold outer space. The Global Volcanism Program provides unique data on Earth’s volcanic activity during the past 10,000 years and monitors current eruptions as well as the hazards they pose to humans. Research on activities at the interface between minerals, the environment, and living systems represents a promising new area of scientific investigation.

Under the second theme, NMNH scientists discover and interpret the diversity and history of Life on Earth addressing four principal questions: What species and groups of organisms exist or have existed, and how are they related? What are the evolutionary relationships among species and groups of organisms? How do evolutionary processes determine the various characteristics of organisms (structure, behavior, development etc.)? How have ecological, environmental, and historical factors influenced the distribution of organisms across the globe and through time? One of the primary tasks of NMNH scientists has been documenting the biological diversity so critical to intelligent management of Earth’s natural resources and systems. NMNH operates the largest and most comprehensive program of basic research in systematic biology in the world. In addition, the fossil record provides critical insights on how the history and diversity of life were shaped over time and how organisms and ecosystems responded to countless, often cataclysmic changes in Earth’s physical environment. It complements information from studies on present-day organisms in the discovery and interpretation of evolutionary innovations and radiations as well as other mechanisms that generate patterns of biodiversity.

Under the third theme, Museum anthropologists work to document the full range of human cultural and biological diversity, from the emergence of the first humans to the present, understanding this diversity within the framework of broad cultural, social, linguistic, and biological theories. Physical anthropologists study long-term trends in human biology, with emphasis on health and disease, demography, evolutionary change, envi-ronmental influences on human biology and evolution, and the biological correlates of cultural diversity and change. Archaeologists and physical anthropologists assess long-term relationships of humans with their environments and examine evolutionary ecological relationships over long periods of time. Cultural anthropologists and linguists explore the historical and contemporary diversity of societies and cultures. The Museum’s vast collections of material culture, ethnographic and linguistic documentation, and images in various media preserve knowledge of human behavior that is changing or disappearing in a transformed world. NMNH has been, and continues to be, a world leader in the study of Native American cultures, languages, and history, working collaboratively with Native communities as well as disseminating information about Native American cultures and individuals. The Museum’s Repatriation Program oversees the return of Native American human remains as well as sacred and funerary objects, as mandated by legislation.

At the center of NMNH research are the Museum's expertly documented collections: more than 126 million natural science specimens and cultural artifacts, the largest collection of its kind. NMNH’s collections represent 88% of Smithsonian’s 144 million specimens. The specimens and artifacts serve as a rich resource for collections use worldwide: 3 ½ million specimens are on loan during a year; over 15,000 visitor days spent in the collections; almost 600,000 additional visits to collection data bases available on the Web, the largest museum database in the world. Images of the collections along with results of staff research are published in journals, Smithsonian publication series, monographs and books, while communication to a broader public occurs through exhibits, popular books, symposia, courses, lectures, workshops, and numerous websites.

Members of the Museum staff actively participate in the education of the next generation of scientists in the biological, geological, and anthropological sciences. Several internship and training programs are hosted by the Museum, involving undergraduates in independent research working side by side with scientists, while fellowship appointments provide an opportunity for pre-and post-doctoral students to pursue independent research topics. The Museum is especially interested in involving under represented minorities and persons with disabilities in its scientific investigations.

Office of the Director

KNOWLTON, Nancy, Biologist. A.B. (1971) Harvard University; Ph.D. (1978) University of California, Berkeley. Research specialties: Systematics, evolution, ecology and behavior of marine invertebrates, particularly shrimps and corals, marine biodiversity, systematics, evolution.

SUES, Hans-Dieter, Associate Director for Research and Collections. Cand. geol. (1975), Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet; M.Sc. (1977), University of Alberta; M.A. (1978), Ph.D. (1984), Harvard University.. Research specialties: Phylogeny and evolutionary morphology of late Paleozoic and Mesozoic non-mammalian synapsids and reptiles (especially non-avian archosaurs); patterns and causes of early Mesozoic biotic changes.

Central Programs

Consortium for the Barcode of Life (http://barcoding.si.edu/index.htm)

The Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL) is an international initiative de-voted to developing DNA barcoding as: an accurate and reliable tool for scientific re-search on the taxonomy of plant and animal species; a practical, cost-effective tool for assigning unidentified specimens to their correct species; and a system for expanding interest and activity in taxonomy. CBOL was created to foster and direct the develop-ment of DNA barcoding. Established in 2004 with the support of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, CBOL is an alliance of specimen collection institutions (e.g. natural history museums and herbaria), research organizations (e.g. genetic sequencing labs and bioin-formatics groups) and private sector partners (e.g. technology developers) who are involved in building specimen-based DNA barcoding resources. The group also includes government agencies that will benefit from the application of rapid species identification. The classification and identification of living organisms is perhaps the oldest and most universal of the human sciences. Over the past 250 years, more than 1.7 million species of animals, plants, and other organisms have been described. Nevertheless, this represents only a small segment of the estimated 10-100 million species of eukaryotes alive today. Although traditional taxonomy and taxonomic identification methods have provided a wealth of information about the organisms around us, the rate of progress is greatly exceeded by our growing need for fast and economical species identification and new species discovery. The Solution: DNA barcoding. DNA barcoding is the use of a short gene sequence from a standardized region of the genome that can be used to help discover, characterize, and distinguish species, and to assign unidentified individuals to species. Barcoding provides a rapid, accurate, automatable, and globally accessible procedure for species delimitation and identification. With the advent of efficient DNA amplification and sequencing methods, combined with advances in computing and information tech-nology, DNA barcoding uses a DNA-based system of species identification that is compatible with the taxonomic infrastructure that has been assembled over the past 250 years. The CBOL Secretariat is hosted by the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC. Contact: David Schindel.

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

SCHINDEL, David, Adjunct Scientist. B.S. (1973) University of Michigan; Ph.D. (1979) Harvard University. Research specialties: DNA barcoding and the Barcode of Life Initiative. DNA barcoding uses as short standardized DNA sequence as a tool for species identification. The Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL; www.barcoding.si.edu) is an international initiative funded by the Sloan Foundation and hosted by NMNH. CBOL promotes the development and adoption of DNA barcoding as a research tool and as a global standard for the identification of regulated species (e.g., agricultural pests, endangered species).

Integrated Taxonomic Information System (http://www.itis.usda.gov/)

The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) provides authoritative taxonomic information on more than 400,000 accepted scientific names, synonyms, and common names for terrestrial, marine, and freshwater species from all biological kingdoms (animals, plants, fungi, protists, and monera). It presents the names in a standard classification that contains author, date, geographic (native vs. non-native), and bibliographic information related to the names. The system currently focuses on North American species, but also includes worldwide treatment of many groups of birds, fishes, reptiles, mollusks, corals and others. In addition, common names are available through ITIS in several languages, including English, French, and Spanish. ITIS is fast becoming the standard for nomenclature used by other databases. The ability to refer to standardized taxonomic nomenclature is a prerequisite for biological data sharing and comparison among different agencies and organizations. Standardized names of organisms let users look at synonyms or alternative names that have been used to describe the same species in different geographic regions or at different times. Similarly, taxonomic data and in-formation are necessary to support all types of biological inventory, monitoring, and research.

The ITIS database is made available for broad, continual use by government agencies, scientists, and the public by linking an advanced relational database to Web technology. Contact: Michael Ruggiero.

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

ORRELL, Thomas M., Museum Biologist, ITIS Program. B.A. (1987) University of Richmond, VA; Ph.D. (2000) College of William and Mary, School of Marine Science, Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Research specialties: Evolutionary relationships, biogeography and diversity of fishes; invasive species; taxonomic information; informatics.

RUGGIERO, Michael Andrew, Research Associate. B.S. (1972) Mount Saint Mary's College; M.S. (1977), Ph.D. (1982) George Washington University. Research specialties: Biodiversity informatics, biological inventory and monitoring, insect ecology.

Ocean Science Initiative (http://www.mnh.si.edu/ocean/)

The Ocean Science Initiative is a multi-faceted new endeavor to build upon the distinguished history of the Museum in marine science. The initiative will engage, educate, and inspire the public through state of the art displays in the Museum’s new Ocean Hall; extend the research of the exhibitions, collections, and research through the integrated and dynamic Ocean Web Portal; and expand understanding of our oceans through the scholarly, multi-disciplinary Center for Ocean Science.

Central Facilities

Laboratories of Analytical Biology

The Laboratories of Analytical Biology (LAB) is a consortium of facilities that support the research of scientists at the NMNH. LAB serves the research community of the NMNH in the pursuit of focused, first class science with an experienced staff, shared instrumentation, support and training. The aim of LAB is to enhance the research environment and contribute to the general scientific literacy by providing current technological resources in the areas of molecular biology, microscopy and scientific computing. LAB welcomes all NMNH researchers, affiliated staff and other SI researchers. Any NMNH researcher, with the approval of their department chair, can use a bench space, computer facilities, and all equipment at the LAB. Contact: Lee Weigt.

RESEARCH STAFF

WEIGT, Lee, Head, Laboratories of Analytical Biology. B.A. (1982), M.S. (1985) Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Research specialties: Molecular genetics; Molecular evolution; Population genetics; Phylogeography; Forensics; Molecular Species Identifications; DNA Barcoding.

Laboratories of Analytical Biology - Genomics Core
(http://www.lab.si.edu)

Currently housed at the Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland, the genomics facilities include an 8,000 square-foot laboratory and office complex. Lab space and equipment provide the capability of performing a full range of comparative modern molecular methods and include separate DNA extraction facilities and areas. Automated capillary DNA sequencing, multiple PCR machines, including a real-time PCR capability, microfluidic separation technology for DNA, RNA and proteins, automated robotic liquid handlers, and cloning areas are housed within the genomics core. Computer facilities include UNIX workstations, Macintosh and PC compatible computers and a parallel computing cluster connected in a network to facilitate the collection and analysis of molecular data in a phylogenetic context. Contacts: Instruments: Jeff Hunt

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Lab is one of the core facilities of the Labora-tories of Analytical Biology (LAB) providing microscopy and imaging services for NMNH researchers and visiting fellows, including the preparation and examination of biological samples for scanning electron microscopy. The SEM Lab supports the re-search interests and conservation efforts of NMNH scientists by providing state-of-the-art instrumentation, training in its use, and assistance in preparing samples for study. The SEM Lab is equipped for conventional preparation, cytochemical and immunocyto-chemical localizations, whole mount preparations and high resolution scanning microscopy. The laboratory has 2 conventional SEM's plus an environmental SEM enabling research on difficult, uncoated, or hydrated materials. The recently purchased stereo mi-croscope allows researchers to overcome the lack of depth of field typically encountered in light optics. The SEM core facilities also include a vacuum evaporator, high-resolution sputter coater, critical point dryer and all other ancillary support equipment for specimen preparation and examination. Contact: Scott Whittaker.

The NMNH Library was formed as an administrative entity in 1981 and is one of 20 libraries within the Smithsonian Institution Libraries. It consists of a main location plus 15 specialized collections. The library features scholarly, highly technical and research-oriented materials in cross-disciplinary topics within the general areas of interest to the NMNH. It contains about 120,000 items on general science, biology, ecology, evolution, biodiversity, geology, paleontology, conservation and other subjects. There are over 500 journal subscriptions and a large number of journals received on exchange. The NMNH Main Library and its satellite locations all have strong collections of 19th- and 20th-century literature. In addition, the National Agricultural Library, the Library of Congress, the National Library of Medicine, and the Geological Survey Library make the Washington area one of the best in the country for bibliographic research. Contact: Ann Juneau.

The Joseph F. Cullman 3rd Library of Natural History holds a world-class collection of rare materials in the history of anthropology and the natural sciences, with over 10,000 rare books dating from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Opened in 2002, the facility brings together subject-specific collections previously scattered across twelve separate locations in three buildings. The collections span the range of research interests in the museum: physical and cultural anthropology, ethnology, Native American linguistics, and archeology; botany; ornithology, mammalogy, herpetology, ichthyology, entomology, malacology, and other zoological fields; paleontology; and geology and mineralogy. The Library provides cross-disciplinary strengths in the narratives and reports of early voyages of exploration and scientific expeditions, catalogues of natural-history collections from the Renaissance into the modern era, and publications on field-collecting and museum preservation techniques in the 18th and 19th centuries. In addition, the Cullman Library holds the personal library of founder James Smithson, the Deshayes (mollusks) taxonomic card file, and a collection of decorated 19th-century bindings from the Institution’s former Horticulture Library. Contact: Leslie Overstreet.

The Smithsonian Marine Station (SMS), located in Fort Pierce on the east coast of central Florida, is a center for research and education in the marine sciences. SMS is a facility of the NMNH and serves as a field station that draws up to 100 top scientists and students each year from the Smithsonian and collaborating institutions around the world. The facility is situated in a biogeographical transitional zone where there is access to both tropical and temperate biota, and the Gulf Stream is easily accessible with its abundance of long-distance larvae and rich plankton. A diverse fauna is found in the variety of habitats from the mangroves, seagrass beds, and mud flats of the Indian River Lagoon to the sandy beaches and worm reefs of the oceanic coast and the various substrata of the offshore continental shelf including coquinoid limestone ledges, oculinid coral reefs, and shell hash plains. The SMS specializes in studies of marine biodiversity and ecosystems of Florida.

Research focuses on the Indian River Lagoon and the offshore waters of Florida's east central coast, with comparative studies throughout coastal Florida. Ongoing research programs include the systematics, ecology, and functional morphology of algae; life histories of meiofaunal organisms, sipunculans, polychaetes, and gastropods; ecology of foraminiferans; systematics, reproduction, and ecology of several groups of echinoderms and crustacea; and studies of mangrove ecosystems. The resident science program concentrates on life histories of marine invertebrates, benthic ecology of the Indian River Lagoon and near shore reefs, marine plant-animal interactions, and chemical ecology of seaweeds and invertebrates.

The facilities at the SMS include an 8,000 square-foot laboratory/office building and a residence for visiting scientists on an 8-acre campus. Available for use by visiting scientists are laboratories for histology, electron microscopy, electrophoresis, DNA studies, biochemistry, a photographic darkroom, small industrial shop, and offices and laboratories for individual scientists. Specialized equipment includes recirculating sea water systems, equipment for preparing tissues for light and electron microscopy, a scanning and a transmission electron microscope, confocal microscope, centrifuges, an ultra-cold freezer, equipment for electrophoresis studies, a thermocycler for DNA analyses, high-performance liquid chromatographs, a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer, and a UV-visual spectrophotometer. There is also a wide variety of light microscopes and photographic, video and computer equipment. The SMS owns four boats for use in field studies: a 17-foot Boston Whaler and 21-foot Carolina Skiff for research within the Indian River lagoon, a 21-foot center-console boat to access near-shore waters, and a 39-foot boat, the R/V SUNBURST, for work on the nearby continental shelf. Contact: Valerie Paul.

RESEARCH STAFF

PAUL, Valerie, Head Scientist. B.A. (1979), Ph.D. (1985) University of California San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Research specialties: Marine chemical ecology, marine plant-herbivore interactions, coral reef ecology, and marine natural products.

TUNBERG, Bjorn, Marine Ecologist. B.S. (1978) University of Stockholm, Sweden; M.S. (1980) University of Bergen, Norway; Ph.D. (1984) University of Goteborg, Sweden. Research specialties: Marine benthic ecology, crustacean ecology, impacts on marine communities from climatic change and oscillations, ecosystem trophodynamics

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

RICE, Mary E., Emeritus Senior Scientist. B.A. (1947) Drew University; M.A. (1949) Oberlin College; Ph.D. (1966) University of Washington. Research specialties: Systematics and development of the Sipuncula; research on reproductive biology and comparative developmental patterns, larval biology and metamorphosis of marine invertebrates; biology of rock-boring organisms; development and distribution of oceanic larvae.

THEME I: The Formation and Evolution of the Earth and Other Planets

The goal of this theme is to conduct original research into the origin and history of Earth and other planets. NMNH contributes to these studies by drawing on invaluable collections of minerals, rocks, meteorites and data on global volcanic activity found in the Departments of Mineral Sciences. Research strategies include: Planetary Formation and Evolution to advance knowledge and understanding of how planetary systems form and evolve; Evolution of Earth-like Planets to focus research on how Earth-like planets evolve; and Planetary Habitability to increase our knowledge and understanding of what makes planets suitable for life.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL SCIENCES

The mission of the Department of Mineral Sciences is to seek answers to questions about the origin of the solar system, planetary differentiation, the debate about possible traces of ancient extraterrestrial life, insights into crustal and mantle processes that are linked to understanding volcanism, earthquakes and plate tectonics, and improved knowledge of interactions of minerals with the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

Broad, long-term research now underway in the Department of Mineral Sciences includes studies of rocks dredged and drilled from the deep oceans; field and laboratory investigations of active volcanoes; systematic investigations of major mineral groups, including crystallographic and structural examination; analysis of global volcanic patterns for the past 10,000 years; chemical and mineralogical analysis of meteorites; geochemistry of metamorphic rocks and fluids; and the tectonic evolution of high pressure low temperature metamorphic terrains. Research strengths include meteoritics, mineralogy, petrology, and volcanology.

Collections

The Department of Mineral Sciences curates collections of minerals, gems, rocks, ores, meteorites, tektites, and volcanologic data/images that are among the largest and most complete in the world. The ever-expanding collections constitute large reservoirs of source material for a great variety of research questions in meteoritics, mineralogy, petrology, geochemistry, and economic geology.

National Meteorite Collection

The U.S. National Meteorite Collection is one the largest and among the best museum-based collections of meteorites in the world, particularly strong in iron meteorites. The collection includes over 40,000 meteorite samples representing about 13,000 different meteorites, including important named specimens, as well as meteorites from the Moon and Mars, including 7 of the approximately 30 known Martian meteorites. The collection has over 7,000 polished thin sections and contains pieces of every type of meteorite.

National Gem and Mineral Collection

The National Gem and Mineral Collection is one of the greatest collections of its kind in the world with highly prized objects in the National Gem Collection as well as comprehensive mineralogical reference material. There are over 375,000 individual specimens in the collection including such famous pieces as the Hope Diamond and the Star of Asia Sapphire.

National Rock and Ore Collection

There are 14 discrete collections within the National Rock and Ore Collection. These collections together number about 265,000 catalogued and computer inventoried specimens with an additional 50,000 specimens awaiting curation. Large and very well documented collections of mantle xenoliths, ocean basin lavas, ores and edifice and eruption keyed volcanic rocks have worldwide coverage. Additional highlights include historically significant collections, especially of the United States Geological Survey specimens, island rocks, petrologic features, petrographic and lithologic reference collections, building stones, and impactites. Important collections awaiting formal accession include the Shoemaker impactites, Yoder mililites, Boyd and Wilshire xenoliths, Chao and Cameron ore deposits, and the Bateman granites.

Most of the rocks and ores are part of the Locality Collection (over 67,500 specimens). This collection is organized into small suites of rocks from the same locality, such as a particular quadrangle or geologic setting. These are typically petrogenetically related and usually described in at least one reference. The Volcanological Reference Collection (6,445 specimens) includes specimens from 291 different volcanoes or volcanic fields. Many are from dated eruptions. This collection, organized by eruption year, includes a large suite (1,400 specimens) from the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of eruptive material from Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes. The collection also includes 369 drill cores from the Kilauea Iki and Makaopuhi lava lakes. The Ore Collection (19,221 specimens) is a systematic collection of metallic ores and mineral commodities. The collection includes metal-bearing minerals and massive ore-bearing material (primarily from major U.S. mines opened prior to 1930), as well as some non-metallic minerals and commodities such as pigments, abrasives, salts, clays, and hydrocarbons. The Sea Floor Rock Collection (9,904 specimens plus 840 manganese nodule specimens) includes dredged and cored specimens from mid-ocean ridges, seamounts, and fracture zones. The Impactite Collection includes shocked rocks from impact structures around the world. Often the corresponding meteoritic material is also represented in the National Meteorite Collection.

Facilities

The Department of Mineral Sciences is well equipped for the study of rocks and minerals. In addition to a capability for classical gravimetric analysis in the wet-chemistry laboratory, the instrumentation includes an electron microprobe and an analytical scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence facilities. Also available are an infrared spectrometer, CCD imaging and spectroscopy with a cathodoluminescence microscope, an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, and numerous optical microscopes. The Department has recently acquired a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer, which can analyze the elemental compositions of minerals on the nanoscale, and a microdiffractometer, which can non-destructively obtain an X-ray diffraction pattern from a small area on a polished sample. A well-equipped shop for preparation of thin and polished sections provides supporting services to the scientific staff. The facilities include a room-size rock saw to section exceptionally large rocks as well as meteorites. At the Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland, the Department maintains a clean room modeled on the facility used for Moon rocks at NASA's Johnson Space Center.

Fieldwork

Geologists from the Department conduct fieldwork at sites around the world. Recent research areas have included: the famous jade mines of Myanmar (Burma) and Mesoamerican jade quarries in Guatemala; deep submersible study of a large submarine caldera south of Japan, where active ore forming processes are occurring; and young lava flows and ash deposits erupted from Volcán Colima in southwestern México and Kilauea in Hawaii.

Publications

The Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network is published monthly by the Department’s Global Volcanism Program, reporting typically on 15-25 individual volcanoes from around the world.

Education and Outreach

Members of the Department are actively involved in a number of education-related and outreach programs within and outside of the Institution such as public lectures, hosting of interns and fellows, and collaborating with a variety of university and other agency partners.

Libraries

The Mineral Sciences library contains about 8,500 volumes and 45 journal subscriptions and focuses on mineralogy, gemology, volcanology, meteorites, petrology, and geochemistry.

Programs and Affiliations

The Global Volcanism Program
(http://www.volcano.si.edu/gvp/)

The Global Volcanism Program (GVP) is the hub of an international network for monitoring, reporting, and maintaining data related to volcanic activity around the world. The GVP plays a leadership role in global volcano information - tracking events as they happen, building the database of critical information, and using these resources both for NMNH research projects and for answering questions about volcanology from other scientists, the media, and the public. The large and growing database contains information for more than 3,000 active volcanoes from around the world and more than 9,000 of their known eruptions. Most of these data are now available on our website, along with our systematic monthly and weekly volcanic activity reports, the latter in collaboration with the USGS Volcano Hazards Program. The GVP also maintains extensive collections of maps, images, and other resources for Earth’s active volcanoes. The GVP collaborates with non-Smithsonian scientists and organizations concerned with volcano hazards, airline safety, geothermal energy, and global climate change, including the USGS, the Department of Energy, the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA), National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Federal Aviation Administration. Contact: James F. Luhr.

The Antarctic Meteorite Program was established in 1976. The Smithsonian Institution, the National Science Foundation, and NASA cooperatively administer the program. The focus of the Program is the collection, curation, and long-term storage of meteorites recovered from the Antarctic ice sheets each year by U.S. Scientists. Curators in the Department of Mineral Sciences classify each of the meteorites returned and publish these results in the Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter, issued twice a year by NASA's Johnson Space Center. The Smithsonian also curates Antarctic meteorites, where the entire collection will eventually reside. Of the 13,000 distinct meteorites in the Smithsonian's National Meteorite Collection, more than 7,500 come from Antarctica. Contact: Timothy McCoy.

RESEARCH STAFF

CASTRO, Johnathan M., Associate Curator. B.S. (1993) Humboldt State University; Ph.D. (1999) University of Oregon. Research specialties: Volcanology; crystallization history of magma.

COTTRELL, Elizabeth, Associate Curator / Research Geologist. B.S. (1997) Brown University, Ph.D. (2004) Columbia University. Research specialties: experimental geochemistry and petrology, volcanology,.

MACPHERSON, Glenn J., Geologist. B.S. (1972) University of California, Santa Cruz; Ph.D. (1981) Princeton University. Research specialties: Understanding the first 3 million years of the history of our solar system, through detailed geochemical studies of primitive solar system materials such as meteorites and comet dust; relating formation of our solar system to processes observed in disks around newly-formed stars; understanding the geologic evolution of the western continental margin of North America, through studies of ancient volcanic rocks of diverse geochemical charactieristics.

MCCOY, Timothy J., Geologist, Associate Curator. B.S. (1986) Eastern Illinois University; M.S. (1990) University of New Mexico; Ph.D. (1994) University of Hawaii, Manoa. Research specialties: Meteorites, igneous evolution of small bodies in the early solar system, martian volcanological history derived from meteorites.

POST, Jeffrey E., Mineralogist; Curator, gems and minerals. B.S. (1976) University of Wisconsin, Platteville; Ph.D. (1981) Arizona State University. Research specialties: Environmental mineralogy, single crystal and powder X-ray diffraction; electron microscopy; manganese oxide minerals; clay minerals; computer modeling of mineral structures, rietveld analysis.

SORENSEN, Sorena S., Geologist. B.A. (1978), Pomona College; Ph.D. (1984) University of California, Los Angeles. Research specialties: Metamorphic petrology; major, minor, and trace element geochemistry of metamorphic and igneous rocks; field studies of metasomatic fluid/rock interactions; petrotectonic evolution of high P/T and arc-related metamorphic terranes.

VICENZI, Edward, Supervisory Research Geochemist. B.Sc. (1982) McGill University; M.S. (1985) University of Oregon; Ph.D. (1991) Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Research specialties: The study of water on Mars by way of microanalysis of Martian meteorites with implications for the viability of extraterrestrial microbial lifeforms..

WISE, Michael A., Geologist. B.A. (1979) University of Virginia; Ph.D. (1987) University of Manitoba. Research specialties: Mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry of pegmatites; petrogenesis and evolution of pegmatites and pegmatite-generating granites; systematic mineralogy; regional distribution of pegmatites in the Appalachians.

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

CLARKE, Roy S., Curator Emeritus of Meteorites. B.A. (1949) Cornell University; M.S. (1957), Ph.D. (1976) George Washington University. Research specialties: Chemical and mineralogical relationships in metallic meteorites; role of phosphorous in the development of iron meteorite structures.

MASON, Brian H., Curator Emeritus of Meteorites. B.A. (1937), M.S. (1938) University of New Zealand; Ph.D. (1943) University of Stockholm. Research specialties: Cosmochemistry; mineralogy and petrology of meteorites.

MELSON, William G., Senior Scientist Emeritus. B.A. (1961) Johns Hopkins University; Ph.D. (1964) Princeton University. Research specialties: Studies of active volcanoes aimed at eruption monitoring, patterns and predictions, especially Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica; Regional geology, Central America, Montana, Central Appalachians; Marine geology-plate tectonics, especially rocks from seafloor spreading centers in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; Geoarchaeology (Israel, Costa Rica, Kenya); Earth system science.

SIMKIN, Tom, Geologist/Volcanologist Emeritus. B.A. (1955) Swarthmore College; M.S. (1960), Ph.D. (1965) Princeton University. Research specialties: Global volcanism, calderas, and magma dynamics; geology of the Galapagos Islands and the Scottish Tertiary Province.

THEME II: Discovering and Understanding Life’s Diversity

Smithsonian scientists discover and interpret the diversity and history of life on Earth. As the focus of five Departments (Paleobiology, Botany, Entomology, Invertebrate and Vertebrate Zoology), NMNH researchers contribute to this effort by drawing on unparalleled collections of animals, plants, and other organisms present and past. Research strategies include: Encyclopedia of Life to discover and describe the diversity of species; Forces of Change to understand the evolutionary and ecological forces that affect diversity; and Biology of Extinction to understand the extinction of species and loss of habitats, whether past or present, and provide strategies for reversing human impacts and restoring and protecting species and habitats.

DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY

The mission of the Department of Paleobiology is discovery, description, and interpretation of the past history of life on earth and its context within the surrounding environment. Research efforts of the department are driven by important evolutionary and ecological questions that require the charting of the patterns and processes of past life. These endeavors are accomplished by active field work, examination of collections, archiving of resulting data, publication of research results, and sponsoring a variety of education and outreach activities.

Research

The Department of Paleobiology is a center for interdisciplinary research on the history of the earth and its biota, and their interactions through time. Research programs in paleontology encompass the systematics of specific animal and plant groups and their associations, the evolutionary processes underlying phylogenetic patterns, paleoecology, the responses of ecosystems to abiotic and biotic change, and the relationships of ecological patterns to evolving lineages. Studies of environmental history emphasize the responses of shallow-water depositional systems to changing climates and rates of subsidence, reef dynamics, and the history of ocean basins.

Collections

The Department of Paleobiology has responsibility for the day-to-day curation of the National Collection of fossils and sediments. The Collection represents a microcosm of the Museum’s biological departments and has a historic origin. Some of the specimens were collected even before the Powell and Hayden Surveys of the late 1800’s.

The Collection is large, (containing more than 43 million fossils, with over 290,000 type specimens, and 50,000 sediment samples), contains material collected within and outside the United States, and spans geologic time from the Pre-Cambrian to the Recent. To facilitate access, accountability, and curation, the Collection has been divided into sub-collections containing either invertebrate, vertebrate, or plant fossils, or, sediment samples. There is a general organizational scheme used for most of the sub-collections. Published specimens are grouped by geologic age and taxon (e.g., Mesozoic Gastropoda Type, Paleozoic Anthozoa Type). Identified but unpublished specimens are stored either as a unit (e.g. Brachiopoda Biologic Collection) or by geologic age and taxon (e.g., Mesozoic Gastropoda Biologic). Stratigraphic collections are organized by geologic age then locality. Some unique collections (e.g., Burgess Shale Type, Burgess Shale Biologic) are kept as sub-collections containing a variety of taxa. There is also a large collection of archival documentation relating to the National Collection that consists of illustrations, paintings, field notebooks, annotated maps, correspondence, photographs, specimen ledgers, card files, and the like. The archival documentation may be housed either in Paleobiology or in the Smithsonian Institution Archives.

Each year, thousands of specimens are loaned to students and researchers around the world for scientific investigation as well as for exhibit. Specimens are being added continuously through staff collecting, donations from private individuals and educational/public institutions, and transfers from other government agencies.

Invertebrate Paleontology

There are several outstanding invertebrate paleontology collections, including the Trilobite Type Collection; Cenozoic Marine Mollusk Type Collection; Burgess Shale Collection; Echinodermata including the Springer Collection; Glass Mountain Collection (Brachiopoda); Green River Insect Collection; Forminifera Collection; Solnhofen Collection; and the Micropaleontologic Reference Center Collection housing more than 10,000 microfossil samples of foraminifera in specimen containers, as well as calcareous nannofossils, radiolarians and diatoms on slides. The holdings of the Burgess Shale total over 65,000 specimens and represent the largest collection of these fossils in the world. Most invertebrate type and non-type collections, published and unpublished specimens are kept within their distinct collections, grouped by Class and age.

The Springer Collection of echinoderms, donated by Frank Springer in 1911, is the largest repository of fossil crinoids in the world. It consists of nearly 4,500 primary types, including 1,678 holotypes, mostly from Paleozoic sequences in North America and Europe. In addition to the primary types there are more than 100,000 secondary types derived from all parts of the world.

The Foraminifera Collection is the largest repository in the world of foraminiferal type specimens including over 16,000 primary types (holotypes and paratypes) and over 200,000 secondary types. This assemblage represents about 75% of all the type specimens of the American smaller foraminifera and 90% of the larger American Mesozoic and Cenozoic foraminifera. The collection includes the Cushman Collection of Foraminifera, willed to the Smithsonian by Dr. Joseph A Cushman, of approximately 150,000 mounted slides, 25,000 type slides and figured specimens.

Vertebrate Paleontology

Outstanding collections include Hagerman Horse Collection; the Teleoceras Collection; Marsh Dinosaur Collection; and the Fossil Marine Mammal Collection. Vertebrate collections of fish, amphibians and reptiles are arranged taxonomically whereas the mammals are organized first by stage and then taxonomy.

The first significant dinosaur fossils added to the museum’s collections were the type specimen of the sauropod Dystrophaeus viaemalae, collected by J. S. Newberry and donated in 1859, and the Lower Jurassic dinosaur footprints from the Connecticut Valley, donated in 1861. The collections currently include over 1,500 catalogued specimens of dinosaurs, 30 of which are on display. The Marsh Collection, the largest single dinosaur collection at the Smithsonian, includes some of the most important dinosaurs known to science including exhibit specimens of Allosaurus, Stegosaurus, Camptosaurus, Ceratosaurus, Triceratops, and Edmontosaurus.

Paleobotany

The paleobotany type collection, considered among the best collections of its kind in the world, is arranged by publication date and author whereas the rest of the paleobotany collections are organized by stratigraphy, collector, or age. The fossil plant collections are complemented by two collections of modern cleared and stained leaf samples of flowering plants, preserved on more than 20,000 glass slides, the best of their kind for comparison with fossil material.

Sedimentology

The Sediment Collection includes a reference collection of over 120,000 stratigraphic and sediment samples as well as representative material collected during historic cruises such as the Albatross and Coastal Survey Studies conducted in the late 1800's.

Facilities

Laboratories of the Department include the Paleontology Preparation Lab, Sedimentology Lab, Acid Room, and several specialized preparation areas for invertebrates and fossil plants. These laboratories are well equipped for paleontological, sedimentological, and marine geological research. The Department maintains a darkroom, facilities for preparation of thin sections, petrographic equipment, X-ray apparatus, and several facilities for bulk maceration of matrix-bound fossil specimens ranging from arthropod cuticles to vertebrate bones.

Field Work

Most of the department’s research is conducted in several regions of the globe. The most common field locality is the Western Interior of North America, and involves collections of paleobotanical, vertebrate, and invertebrate fossils from Late Paleozoic to Neogene deposits. Departmental staff also have major field programs in Africa, including southern Africa, where Permian to Triassic strata are examined for biotic turnover, eastern Africa, particularly the Pliocene to Recent record of hominids and co-occurring mammals in Kenya and the adjacent region and the Nile Delta in northeastern Africa, where the sedimentological and human record of Dynastic to Roman Egypt is preserved. The Department also is actively involved in research of coral reefs at Carrie Bow Cay in Belize, as well as sites across the major oceans where sediment cores are examined for microfossil and physical material to detect major environmental and biological events during the past 100 million years.

Publications

The Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology is a monographic series dedicated to the publication of extensive systematic studies of fossil organisms. The Atoll Research Bulletin covers research on the biology, ecology, and environmental settings of present-day and fossil coral reefs. The aperiodic Evolution of Terrestrial Ecosystems Newsletter informs colleagues of research, colloquia, and other events pertaining to the Evolution of Terrestrial Ecosystems consortium at the NMNH. The Fossil Record is the quarterly Department newsletter and includes narrative updates of departmental activities and research.

Education and Outreach

The Department of Paleobiology organizes and participates in a variety of public outreach programs, both formally and informally. The most popular educational program is the Paleo Training Program, which consists of classes plus field trips covering an introduction to geology and paleontology, vertebrate fossil preparation and collections management. The Department has an active and educational web site that describes research at the department, features paleobiological images, and provides interactives on fossils, geologic time, and paleoecology. Through a variety of cooperative arrangements staff members act both formally and informally as advisors to graduate students and occasionally teach courses at universities both locally and nationally. Specimens are made available to students for thesis work through loans to their academic advisors and students and researchers are welcome to visit the collections and facilities to conduct their investigations on-site. Each year, the Department provides hundreds of hours of access to the collections, allowing the scientific community as well as the public to use and tour the collections.

Libraries

The Department of Paleobiology maintains 7 libraries. For some, oversight is jointly shared with the Smithsonian Institution Libraries (Kellogg, Vertebrate Paleontology, Cooper). For others (Todd, Paleobotany, Coral, Brachiopod) the responsibility for care and maintenance rests solely with Paleobiology staff. The libraries contain books of general interest to geology and paleontology, as well as volumes specific to the taxonomic focus. The department houses a complete set of the Deep Sea Drilling Project-Ocean Drilling Program publications in the Micropaleontological Reference Center.

The Vertebrate Paleontology library collection holds over 1,800 volumes focusing on physical geography, stratigraphy and systematic paleontology and paleozoology of chordates and vertebrates of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary periods. The Cooper Reading Room contains about 250 volumes on general geology, invertebrate paleobiology, historical geology, paleontology and other subjects.

The Remington Kellogg Library of Marine Mammalogy contains about 1,800 books and bound journals on all aspects of fossil and living marine mammals, including paleontology, morphology and phylogeny.

Programs

The Delta Global Change Program is a long-term research effort involving 25 specialists from 13 international laboratories. This program is assessing -- for the first time -- the speed with which environmental changes are threatening fertile river deltas around the world. Deltas under study include those of the Nile River in Egypt, the Rhone River in France, the Yangtze River in China, and the Mississippi River in the United States. Contact: Jean-Daniel Stanley.

The Evolution of Terrestrial Ecosystems Program (ETE) is an interdisciplinary program of the Museum that resides within the Department of Paleobiology. The purpose of this program is to document and interpret the history of terrestrial ecosystems from 420 million years ago to the present. Program scientists study the effects of environmental changes on the ecology and evolution of land plants and animals. Information from the fossil and geological record provides a unique perspective on ecological change through comparisons of past ecosystems with each other and with those of the present day. Contacts: Anna K. Behrensmeyer and Scott L. Wing.

RESEARCH STAFF

BEHRENSMEYER, Anna K., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology. B.A. (1967) Washington University; M.A. (1968), Ph.D. (1973) Harvard University. Research specialties: Paleoecology of terrestrial environments, especially in the later Cenozoic of Africa and Pakistan, continental sedimentation, vertebrate taphonomy in recent and ancient contexts, taphonomic processes affecting the fossil record in general, human paleoecology, evolution of terrestrial ecosystems Co-director, Evolution of Terrestrial Ecosystems (E.T.E.) Program.

BUZAS, Martin A., Senior Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Foraminifera. B.A. (1958) University of Connecticut; M.S. (1960) Brown University; Ph.D. (1963) Yale University. Research specialties: Foraminifera; quantitative ecology-paleoecology; biogeography; evolution.

CARRANO, Mathew T., Research Paleobiologist & Curator of Dinosaurs. B.S. (1991) Brown University; M.S. (1995) & Ph.D. (1998) University of Chicago. Research specialties: Large-scale evolutionary patterns within Dinosauria; systematics of basal Theropoda; vertebrate paleoecology of Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystems; the dinosaur fossil record.

DIMICHELE, William A., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Paleobotany. B.A. (1974) Drexel University; M.S. (1976), Ph.D. (1979) University of Illinois. Research specialties: Paleoecology, morphology, and systematics of late Paleozoic plants, particularly the structure of late Paleozoic ecosystems and the relationship between long-term ecological and evolutionary patterns. Member, ETE Program.

ERWIN, Douglas, Senior Scientist and Curator of Paleozoic Invertebrates. A.B. (1980) Colgate University; Ph.D. (1985) University of California, Santa Barbara. Research specialties: Macroevolution and evolutionary innovations, particularly the Cambrian metazoan radiation and post-extinction biotic recoveries; the Permian mass extinction; and evolutionary history and systematics of Cambrian-Triassic gastropods.

HUBER, Brian T., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Foraminifera. B.Sc. (1981) University of Akron; M.Sc. (1984), Ph.D. (1988) The Ohio State University. Research specialties: Cretaceous climate and oceanography; biostratigraphy and paleobiogeography of Cretaceous and Paleogene foraminifera; evolution and extinction dynamics of Cretaceous and Paleogene planktonic foraminifera; Cretaceous strontium and light stable isotope isotope stratigraphy.

HUNT, Eugene (Gene), Curator of Ostracoda. B.S. (1995) Duke University; M.S. (1999) University of Chicago; Ph.D. (2003) University of Chicago. Research specialties: Deep-sea Ostracoda; macroevolution; quantitative approaches in paleontology.

LABANDEIRA, Conrad, Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Fossil Arthropods. B.A. (1980) California State University, Fresno; M.S. (1986) University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Ph.D. (1990) University of Chicago. Research specialties: Interactions between plants and insects in the fossil record; terrestrial fossil arthropods, particularly insects; evolution of insect mouthparts; member ETE Program.

MACINTYRE, Ian G., Research Geologist. B.Sc. (1957) Queen's University, Kingston, Canada; Ph.D. (1967) McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Research specialties: Carbonate petrography; geological aspects of tropical coral-reef ecosystems; Holocene reef history in the western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific; shallow-water marine geology of the U.S. continental shelf; problems in submarine cementation.

STANLEY, Jean-Daniel, Senior Scientist and Head, Geoarchaeology Program. B.Sc. (1956) Cornell University; M.S. (1958) Brown University; D.Sc.(1961) Ecole Nationale Superieure du Petrole and Universite de Grenoble, France. Research specialties: Coastal and delta sedimentology and geoarchaeology; ancient submerged sites in the Mediterranean.

WING, Scott L., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Paleobotany, Co-Head ETE Program. B.A. (1976), Ph.D. (1981) Yale University. Research specialties: Paleoecology; Cenozoic and Mesozoic paleoclimate; angiosperm history and systematics; fossil plants of the Rocky Mountain region; plant taphonomy.

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

DUTRO, JR., J. Thomas, Research Associate and Invertebrate Paleontologist (U.S. Geological Survey, retired). B.A. (1948) Oberlin College; M.S. (1950), Ph.D. (1953) Yale University; D.Sc. (1993) Denison. Research specialties: Late Paleozoic brachiopods and biostratigraphy, Alaska and western United States; Regional biostrati-graphy East Asia; history of paleontology.

EMRY, Robert J., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Fossil Mammals. B.A. (1966) Colorado State University; Ph. D. (1970) Columbia University. Research specialties: Tertiary Mammalia, of North America and Central Asia; mammalian biostratigraphy; stratigraphy of Tertiary continental deposits of western North America.

FRENCH, Bevan M., Research Collaborator. A.B. (1958) Dartmouth College; M.S. (1960) California Institute of Technology; Ph.D. (1964) Johns Hopkins University. Research specialties: Geology and identification of terrestrial meteorite impact craters; Shock-wave metamorphism of rocks and minerals; Lunar and meteorite petrology.

MAMAY, Serguis H., Research Associate in Paleobotany (U.S. Geological Survey, retired). B.Sc. (1944) Akron University; M.A. (1948), Ph.D. (1950) Washington University. Research specialties: Upper Paleozoic floras, particularly Permian floras of the southwestern United States.

POJETA, JR., John, Research Associate in Invertebrate Paleontology (U.S. Geological Survey, retired). B.S. (1957) Capital University, Bexley, Ohio M.S. (1961) University of Cincinnati Ph.D. (1963) University of Cincinnati. Research specialties: Lower Paleozoic pelecypods, and rostroconchs--biostratigraphy, systematics and phylogeny Paleozoic chitons.

TYLER, James C., Senior Scientist. B.A. (1957) George Washington University; Ph.D. (1962) Stanford University. Research specialties: Systematic ichthyology, especially of the fishes of the Order Tetraodontiformes; community ecology of coral reef fishes.

WALLER, Thomas R., Research Paleobiologist and Curator of Cenozoic Mollusks. B.A. (1959), M.S. (1961) University of Wisconsin; Ph.D. (1966) Columbia University. Research specialties: Marine Bivalvia, particularly evolution throughout the Phanerozoic, morphology, shell ultrastructure, larval development, biogeography, and biostratigraphy; monographic studies of living bivalves and their Mesozoic and Cenozoic fossil record.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

The Department of Botany’s mission is to discover and describe plant life in marine and terrestrial environments, to interpret the evolutionary origin of this diversity, and to understand how humans are affected by and have altered plant diversity on the planet. The Department of Botany hosts events and activities throughout the year to explore and recognize achievements in the botanical community, including the annual Smithsonian Botanical Symposium.

Research

Research in the Department of Botany focuses on plant systematics in the broadest sense: taxonomy, nomenclature, investigations in comparative anatomy and morphology, molecular systematics, phylogenetics, cytology, phytogeography, ecology, evolutionary theory, and economic botany. Numerous floristic studies have been lead by the Department (floras of the Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, the Washington-Baltimore Area, as well as, Myanmar, the Guianas, the Caribbean, and Venezuela), while other research projects are aimed at elucidating evolutionary development, phylogeny, and broad questions of classification. Both modern and fossil species of many plant groups, including the algae, mosses, and flowering plants, are currently being studied.

Collections

The United States National Herbarium is the major facility in the Department. The Herbarium was established in 1848, dating back almost to the foundation of the Smithsonian Institution (1846). Collections of plants resulting from various early government expeditions were first deposited in the National Institute, named originally in 1840 as the National Institution for the Promotion of Science. Later these plants were turned over to the newly founded Smithsonian. Of particular interest among these were the large collections (50,000 specimens representing 10,000 species) from the U.S. South Pacific Exploring Expedition, under the command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, U.S.N., which formed the basis for our national herbarium. The earliest expeditions sponsored in part by the Smithsonian included the explorations of Charles Wright in Texas and New Mexico in 1848.

The U.S. National Herbarium has approximately 4.7 million specimens collected from worldwide locations. About 18% of these, from select families, have been inventoried and have data available through an online searchable database. The oldest specimen in the collection is a member of the Scrophulariaceae that was collected sometime between 1584 and 1589. The majority of the herbarium is arranged phylogenetically by family and genus, and within each genus according to geographic region and further alphabetically by species. The collection includes all major plant groups and is among the ten largest in the world, representing about 8% of the plant collection resources of the United States. Most of the specimens in the collection are standard mounted herbarium sheets, although several small collection subsets of fluid preserved specimens are available for some groups, as well as, bulky parts – typically large specimens stored in boxes or trays. The herbarium includes approximate 96,000 type specimens from all areas of the world but richest in North American and New World tropical species, with additional strengths in the Pacific Islands, the Philippines, and the Indian subcontinent. The Department maintains extremely active loan and exchange programs. Over 50,000 specimens are lent annually around the world, while an additional 20,000 specimens are exchanged. Approximately 200 researchers visit the herbarium each year.

Many of the plant groups represented in the U.S. National Herbarium rank among the finest and/or largest in the world. The flowering plant families of Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Bromeliaceae, Gesneriaceae, Melastomataceae, and Poaceae have especially benefited from a long history of departmental specialist research and study. Active world-class research is also underway in the Araceae, Araliaceae, Commelinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Onagraceae, Passifloraceae, Sapindaceae, Malvaceae, Vitaceae, and Zingiberales.

The Herbarium maintains several important special collections including the DC Herbarium, featuring over 57,000 specimens from the Washington-Baltimore Area, including Plummers Island. The Richard H. Eyde floral microslide collection includes 21,589 serial sections representing 114 families of flowering plants, with special strengths in Cornaceae, Onagraceae, and Rubiaceae. Other important collection resources include the Wood Collection housed at the Museum Support Center (MSC), with over 42,500 specimens representing almost 3,000 genera with an additional 6,374 microslides of wood sections. The pollen and spore reference collection includes over 7,500 microslides representing a wide variety of plant families. The bamboo collection is especially diverse. In addition to over 37,000 inventoried herbarium specimens, the collection is supplemented with over 3,600 bulky specimens (including large culms, rhizomes, branch complements, and culm cross-sections); 3,000 fluid-stored specimens (mostly leaves); 1,300 floral dissections mounts; 250 dry fruit and seed specimens; 16,000 photographic slides; 600 black and white photo negatives; and 2,000 anatomical slides of bamboo serial sections, cross-sections, longitudinal sections and epidermal scrapes.

The cryptogamic collections all rank as premier collections, totaling over three-quarters of a million specimens. The lichen herbarium is one of the largest and best curated collections in the world, numbering about 250,000 specimens. The collection is especially rich in type material with an estimated 2,500 type specimens currently registered. The emphasis of the collection is North American lichens, especially the Parmeliaceae. In addition to the specimens, the lichen collection contains associated research materials, including microscope slides, chemical extracts, chemical identification plates, SEM photographs and negatives, frozen lichen tissues, and DNA samples. The collection of bryophytes (250,000 specimens) and the ferns and fern allies (250,000 specimens) also rate as particularly significant, both in terms of size and scientific/historic value.

The Algal Collection of the U.S. National Herbarium is comprised of marine, estuarine, freshwater, terrestrial (including cave) and airborne algae. The collections of algae have increased dramatically over the past two decades and represent an important resource for the study of tropical and subtropical marine taxa. Numbering over 200,000 accessioned and inventoried specimens, it includes herbarium specimens (150,000), microslides (8,300), liquid preserved material (15,000), and bulky material (10,900). Among the collections are 4,700 type specimens. The collection recently acquired an additional 101,000 specimens, featuring crustose coralline algae. Also contained in this collection, but maintained at MSC, are the complete Francis Drouet collection (52,000 specimens) comprised of mainly, but not exclusively, blue-green algae, the non articulated coralline algae (22,000), as well as a separate diatom collection (37,000) of freshwater and marine materials from both recent and fossil samples. The collections include algae specimens from worldwide geographical regions, with major holdings from: Gulf of California, Pacific Mexico, southern and central California and the Channel Islands, the Galapagos Islands, Aldabra Atoll, and the Caribbean (especially Florida, Belize, Bahamas, and Panama).

Mycological specimens are maintained separately with the National Fungus Collections, a branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, located in Beltsville, Maryland. All the collection and publication information for types has been databased.

The Department maintains a Botanical Art Collection that serves to document the plant species discovered and described by Smithsonian botanists. The Collection includes over 5,500 works including 22 Margaret Mee paintings, 50 Frederick A. Walpole drawings and paintings, and 311 watercolors by M.E. Eaton from the four-volume work “The Cactaceae”, by Britton and Rose. Nearly 2,700 pen and ink drawings, 550 watercolors, and 150 other graphic media are also represented in the collection. The plant images library has over 21,000 photographic images of plant species and their habitats.

The Department is located within easy reach of many other important reference collections in the Washington area, including the National Arboretum, the National Orchid Collection, and the United States Botanic Garden, where large living collections of plant species and horticultural varieties are maintained.

The molecular laboratories at MSC allow modern studies using genetic markers and isozymes to be carried out, including DNA barcoding surveys. Microtechnique laboratories, equipped for cytology and anatomy, are staffed and maintained for use by researchers and visiting scientists. The Functional Morphology Laboratory houses sophisticated instrumentation used to interrelate metabolic, ecological, mechanical and anatomical features of plants in evolutionary and biosystematic studies. A large modern greenhouse complex at MSC with over 7,000 sq. ft. of growing area houses a diversity of living research plants, including rich collections of Commelinaceae, Zingiberales, and blooming corms of the titam arum, Amorphophallus titanum. The greenhouse facility is available for use by staff and associates in cultivating and studying field-collected plants. The Department maintains a scientific illustration facility and full-time in-residence staff scientific illustrator.

Fieldwork

Throughout its history, the Department of Botany has maintained an active field research program in the American tropics but has also undertaken numerous collecting trips on the North American continent and in the Old World tropics. Currently the Department is actively engaged in a multinational effort to produce a flora of the Guianas region, which involves fieldwork and preparation of a written flora. The Department is an Editorial Center for the Flora of China Project. Other areas of concerted fieldwork include Mexico, the Andes, the Caribbean, Pacific Islands, East Africa (including Kenya), and Southeast Asia (especially Myanmar). It is often possible to arrange to receive cytological, anatomical, or other material from these expeditions.

Collaborative fieldwork can be arranged with a number of tropical institutions, such as the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, the Organization for Tropical Studies in Costa Rica, and the National Tropical Botanical Garden in Hawaii. Research in marine botany, with emphasis on studies of systematics and functional morphology of selected plants, can be undertaken at the Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, Florida, and through the Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystem Program at Carrie Bow Cay, Belize.

Publications

The Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium is an externally peer-reviewed periodical produced by the Department. The journal provides a vehicle for disseminating the results of the scientific research at the U.S. National Herbarium, such as longer taxonomic papers, checklists, floras, and monographs. The Index Nominum Genericorum, a listing of generic names in all plant groups, housed and produced in the Department, is corrected and updated on a continual basis. An inventory and online images of type specimens has been prepared under the auspices of the Type Specimen Register and serves as a convenient source of information concerning collection locality, bibliographic citation, and relevant field data. The Plant Conservation Unit generates and compiles data on endangered and threatened plant species and their habitats. It produces a monthly Biological Conservation Newsletter as well as other publications on plant conservation. The Plant Press, the quarterly newsletter from the Department of Botany and the U.S. National Herbarium, provides information about the activities of the Department including articles about staff research and travel, visitors, new publications, and plant conservation highlights.

Education and Outreach

Graduate studies are available in conjunction with local universities especially George Washington University, Duke University, and the University of Maryland. Through cooperative arrangements with many universities, staff members act both formally and informally as advisors to graduate students and occasionally teach courses in plant systematics. Specimens are made available to students for thesis work through loans to their academic advisors. Students are also encouraged to visit the U.S. National Herbarium, to use the collections and facilities onsite, and to seek advice and help from Department staff members.

Since 2001, the Department has hosted the Smithsonian Botanical Symposium, which brings together the national and international plant systematics community to address a botanical topic of current significance. The presentation of the José Cuatrecasas Medal for Excellence in Tropical Botany, an honor bestowed on a botanist and scholar of international stature who has contributed significantly to advancing the field of tropical botany, takes place during the annual symposium.

Library

The Botany Branch Library was established in the winter of 1965-1966 and in 2002 the Botany and Smithsonian Horticulture Libraries were combined into one unit housed in the Department. The combined library holdings total over 60,000 volumes and 300 journal subscriptions. The Botany Library includes one of the outstanding resources for the family Poaceae, the Hitchcock Chase Agrostological Library. The John A. Stevenson Mycological Library, probably the most complete collection of its kind in the United States, is housed with the National Fungus Collections in Beltsville, Maryland, but remains part of the Smithsonian library holdings. The Botany Library, including the John Donnell Smith Botanical Library and the E. Yale Dawson Phycological Library, is especially rich in original editions of classical botanical works. Much of the Department’s fine collection of rare books is now separately housed in the Cullman Library. The Botany Library also contains many archival materials including field books, field notes, and/or specimen lists made by Smithsonian botanists and colleagues who collected plant specimens for the U.S. National Herbarium. The Department also has large reprint collections, including the Richard H. Eyde collection rich in titles on plant anatomy and morphology.

The Horticulture Branch Library was established in 1984 as a research support resource for the Horticulture Services Division, which is responsible for the management of the gardens, grounds, greenhouses, and interior plantscaping at the Smithsonian. The Horticulture Library evolved from a small office collection that was begun in the early 1970s. Since that time, this collection has been enhanced by the donation of several large gifts. An acquisition in 1984 of more than 150 American titles on landscape design dating from the 19th- and early 20th-centuries became the foundation of a growing collection on the subject.

The Historia Plantarum Collection, the personal library of Alain Touwaide comprised of monographs, journals, and microfilms documenting the history of botany with a particular focus on Old World and medicinal plants, is currently housed in the Department. It represents an exemplary resource for understanding the history of botany and the transmission of plant knowledge from antiquity to the present time.

Programs & Affiliates

The Biological Diversity of the Guianas (BDG) program is a field-oriented program initiated in 1983. The goal of the BDG is to study, document, and preserve the biological diversity of the Guianas. Among BDG's accomplishments is a feasibility study to determine the extent of existing plant and animal collections for use by the government of Guyana in establishing parks and reserves, as well as lists of all known plants in the Kaieteur Falls National Park (Guyana), the "Checklist of the Plants of the Guianas", and checklists of birds, mammals, fish, and herpetofauna for use by the Government of Guyana, UNESCO, and conservation groups seeking to enlarge the park area. BDG has completed a plant survey for Iwokrama International Rainforest Reserve (Guyana) that will be used in their conservation efforts. In June 1992, the BDG inaugurated the Centre for the Study of Biological Diversity on the campus of the University of Guyana, as a repository for collections and an educational facility for training the next generation of Guyanese systematists. Contact: Vicki Funk.

Plant Conservation Unit

The Plant Conservation Unit promotes and coordinates activities and research that focus on plant conservation and endangered plant species. To document and understand the changes and decline in plant biodiversity, the Unit gathers and maintains data on the survival prospects of plant taxa. Information is shared with the international botanical, conservation and development communities. The Unit manages an information service by responding to requests from a variety of sources and providing information on world plant conservation, threatened species, habitats, and literature. Contact: Gary Krupnick.

United States Botanical Garden (http://www.usbg.gov/)

The Department of Botany has established a formal collaboration with the United States Botanic Garden (USBG), bringing together these two institutions that had their common historical nineteenth century beginnings in the National Institute for the Promotion of Science (1841) and the living and preserved collections resulting from the around-the-world Wilkes Exploring Expedition of 1838-1842. Located only several blocks from each other at the base of Capitol Hill, today the USBG is a free-standing institution under the administration of the Architect of the Capitol. The research, field exploration, training, and conservation components provided by the Department in combination with the horticultural and public display elements at the USBG form a highly significant botanical consortium in the Washington area with joint projects on research, botanical exhibition, environmental education and conservation. Significant collaborations between the two parties include the Smithsonian Botanical Symposium, an annual orchid show, and the Botanical Partners on the Mall Lecture Series, a quarterly event presented at the United States Botanic Garden. Contact: W. John Kress.

RESEARCH STAFF

ACEVEDO, Pedro, Curator, Botany. B.A. (1977) University of Puerto Rico; Ph.D. (1989) City University of New York. Research specialties: Systematics or Neotropical Sapindaceae, especially of climbing genera of Paullinieae tribe; floristics of the Caribbean Islands (Greater Antilles); taxonomy of climbing plants.

ADEY, Walter H., Research Scientist, Curator, Crustose Coralline Algae. B.S. (1955) Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Ph.D. (1963) University of Michigan. Research specialties: Algal ecology; Holocene geology as related to coastal ecosystems; microcosm modeling of aquatic systems; systematics and biogeography.

DORR, Laurence J., Associate Curator, Botany. B.A. (1976) Washington University; M.A. (1980) University of North Carolina; Ph.D. (1983) University of Texas. Research specialties: Systematics of Malvaceae s.l. (including Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae) and tropical African and Malagasy Ericaceae; flora of the northern Andes; botanical history and bibliography.

FADEN, Robert B., Associate Curator, Botany. B.A. (1962) City College of New York; M.S. (1964) University of Michigan; Ph.D. (1975) Washington University. Research specialties: Systematics of Commelinaceae (worldwide); systematic anatomy; African floristics and biogeography; reproductive biology of angiosperms; pteridophytes.

FAUST, Maria A., Research Microbiologist. B.A. (1951) Agricultural University of Budapest, Hungary; M.S. (1962) Rutgers State University; Ph.D. (1970) University of Maryland. Research specialties: Morphology, geography, ecology, biodiversity, life history and cytology of harmful and non-harmful dinoflagellate microalgae in shallow-water tropical, marine waters including coral reefs and mangroves.

FUNK, Vicki A., Senior Research Botanist and Head, Biological Diversity of the Guianas (BDG) Program. B.S. (1969), M.S. (1975) Murray State University; Ph.D. (1980) Ohio State University. Research specialties: Systematics of the Compositae, theoretical cladistics and biogeography, and methods for estimating biodiversity.

KRESS, W. John, Curator, Botany. B.A. (1975) Harvard University; Ph.D. (1981) Duke University. Research specialties: Systematics of flowering plants, especially tropical monocotyledons with focus on gingers, bananas, and heliconias (Zingiberales), including floral and pollination biology, allozyme and molecular variation, and phylogenetic relationships; generic concepts in the Zingiberales; the flora of Myanmar (Burma) and Asian botany; field tools of the future (e.g., DNA barcoding, digital imaging for field guides; genetic diversity and speciation in tropical angiosperms; conservation biology, including forest fragmentation, gene flow, and genetic variation in tropical and temperate plant species; using museum collections and data for assessing conservation priorities.

LITTLER, Mark M., Senior Scientist, Botany. B.A. (1961), M.S. (1966) Ohio University; Ph.D. (1971) University of Hawaii. Research specialties: Relative dominance theory, functional morphology and complex ecological interactions in coral reef systems. Other research can be categorized under the following headings: monographic/phylogenetic systematics; seaweed experimental taxonomy; causes o f variability in biodiversity, standing stocks, productivity and evolution of tropical marine ecosystems.

NORRIS, James N., Research Scientist and Curator, Botany. B.A. (1968) San Francisco State College; M.A. (1971) San Francisco State University; Ph.D. (1975) University of California, Santa Barbara. Research specialties: Systematics, chemotaxonomy, and ecology of benthic marine algae, especially tropical and subtropical species.

PETERSON, Paul M., Curator of Grasses. B.A. (1977) Humboldt State University; M.S. (1984) University of Nevada; Ph.D. (1988) Washington State University. Research specialties: Systematics and floristics of New World grasses; phylogeny of the grass family.

ROBINSON, Harold E., Curator, Botany. B.A. (1955) Ohio University; M.S. (1957) University of Tennessee; Ph.D. (1960) Duke University. Research specialties: Taxonomy of Bryophyta, with emphasis on exotic forms and Neotropical species, taxonomy and anatomy of Compositae.

WAGNER, Warren L., Curator, Botany. B.A. (1973), M.S. (1977) University of New Mexico; Ph.D. (1981) Washington University. Research specialties: Pacific Basin angiosperm floristics, systematics, phylogeny and biogeography; systematics and evolution of Oenothera (Onagraceae); phylogeny of Caryophyllaceae.

WEN, Jun, Associate Curator. B.S. (1984) Central China Agricultural University; Ph.D. (1991) Ohio State University. Research specialties: Systematics of flowering plants, especially Araliaceae; biogeography of the Northern Hemisphere; biogeography of Asia; economic botany.

WURDACK, Kenneth, Assistant Curator. B.S. (1990) University of Maryland, College Park; M.S. (1994), Ph.D. (2002) University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Research specialties: Systematics and evolution of Euphorbiaceae and Malpighiales; molecular and genome evolution.

ZIMMER, Elizabeth Anne, Principal Investigator, Laboratories of Analytical Biology; Curator, Botany. B.A. (1973) Cornell University; Ph.D. (1981) University of California, Berkeley. Research specialties: Molecular systematics of flowering plants; development of molecular markers across a range of species divergence.

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

FEUILLET, Christian, Research Associate, Botany. B.A. (1978) Sorbonne University of Paris; M.S. (1979), Ph.D. (1981) Sorbonne University; ORSTOM botanist (1981-1995). Research specialties: Floristics of the Guianas, taxonomy, phylogeny, and biogeography of Passifloraceae, Gesneriaceae, Aristolochiaceae, and Boraginaceae.

GOLDBERG, Aaron, Research Associate, Botany. B.A. (1939) Brooklyn College; M.S. (1954) De Paul University; Ph.D. (1962) George Washington University. Research specialties: Taxonomy, evolution and phylogeny of angiosperms, particularly at the family level and above.

KRUPNICK, Gary, Head, Plant Conservation Unit. B.A. (1990) University of California, San Diego; PhD (1996) University of California, Irvine. Research specialties: Plant Conservation Biology.

LITTLER, Diane S., Research Associate. B.S. (1968) University Hawaii; Ph.D. (1985) Pacific Western University. Research specialties: Biodiversity, experimental taxonomy, functional morphology, relative dominance theory and natural history of marine plants.

MEÑEZ, Ernani G., Botanist Emeritus. B.S. (1954) University of the Philippines; M.S. (1962) University of Hawaii; Ph.D. (1980) University of New Hampshire. Research specialties: Systematics of tropical and subtropical marine benthic algae and seagrasses.

NICOLSON, Dan H., Curator, Botany. B.A. (1955) Grinnell College; M.B.A. (1957) Stanford University; M.S. (1959), Ph.D. (1964) Cornell University. Research specialties: Taxonomy of Araceae; flora of Dominica, Nepal, and southern India, botany of 2nd Cook Expedition (1772-1775); botanical nomenclature.

SAMPER, Cristian K., Director. B.S. (1987) Universidad de los Andes; M.A. (1989),Ph.D.(1992) Harvard University. Research specialties: Tropical forest ecology.

SHETLER, Stanwyn G., Curator Emeritus, Botany. B.S. (1955), M.S. (1958) Cornell University; Ph.D. (1979) University of Michigan. Research specialties: Taxonomy and ecology of Campanula; flora and vegetation of the Central Atlantic region and the Arctic, especially Alaska.

SKOG, Laurence E., Research Scientist Emeritus. B.A. (1965) University of Minnesota; M.S. (1968) University of Connecticut; Ph.D. (1972) Cornell University. Research specialties: Systematics of wild and cultivated Neotropical Gesneriaceae; Neotropical flora, especially flora of the Guianas.

SORENG, Robert, Research Associate. B.S. (1978) Oregon State University; M.S. (1980), Ph.D. (1986) New Mexico State University. Research specialties: Systematics, taxonomy, and nomenclature of Poaceae, Pooideae, and Poa; phylogenetics, biogeography, breeding systems, morphology, worldwide focus.

TOUWAIDE, Alain, Botanist. B.A. (1975), M.A. (1977) University of Louvain, Belgium; Habilitation a diriger des recherches (1997) University of Toulouse, France; Ph.D. (1981) University of Louvain, Belgium. Research specialties: History of Botany in the ancient Mediterranean cultures (Greece, Rome, the Arabic World, the West, the Renaissance), with special emphasis on medicinal plants; Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology; Plants in ancient life, culture and arts.

WASSHAUSEN, Dieter C., Curator Emeritus, Botany. B.A. (1963), M.S. (1966), Ph.D. (1972) George Washington University. Research specialties: Taxonomy of Neotropical phanerogams, especially systematics of Acanthaceae, Begoniaceae.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY

The mission of the Department of Entomology is to describe and understand the phylogenetic and biological diversity of insects and other terrestrial arthropods through global field and laboratory research; to care for and improve the world's largest and most comprehensive terrestrial arthropod collection; and to disseminate these discoveries through scholarly and popular publication, databases of systematic and collection information, training at the graduate and post-graduate level, lectures, teaching and consulting, and through museum exhibition. The Department hosts staff from three government agencies: the Smithsonian Institution; the U.S. Department of Agriculture Systematic Entomology Laboratory (USDA-SEL); and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit (WRBU). This combine community represents, by far, the greatest concentration of entomological expertise in the world.

Research

Research in the Department of Entomology is primarily collection-based and focuses on systematics in the broadest sense, including basic taxonomy, comparative morphology, and life history of insects, as well as evolutionary and population biology, phylogenetics, biogeography, biodiversity, ecology, behavior, and molecular genetic studies. Of particular current interest are studies on the classes Insecta, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Arachnida, Symphyla, Pauropoda, and Arthropoda.

Collections

The U.S. National Entomological Collection ranks as the second largest insect collection in the world with approximately 32 million specimens including over 100,000 holotypes plus hundreds of thousands of additional paratypes and other secondary types. With specimens from worldwide locations, the collections are second to none in coverage for the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. Specimens from the Old World are also well represented, especially from Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. Although the bulk of the collection is kept dry, various groups—such as spiders— are stored in alcohol. The collections are typically arranged by taxon; lower categories (genus, species) are arranged alphabetically, and for select taxa, within each species they are further organized by country of origin. For some groups, collections are currently being housed off-site as part of the Off-Site Enhancement Program.

Although the U.S. National Museum (USNM) was established in 1842, the first record of an insect collection stored in the museum does not appear until 1858. In the 1860's most of the Smithsonian's USNM insect collection was sent to collaborating specialists with the stipulation that the material could be reclaimed at any time. In the early 1870's the USDA was made the official repository for the Smithsonian insect collection, which was added to the USDA collection, but then in 1881 the combined insect collection was formally transferred to the Smithsonian where it resides today.

The collections include a very large ectoparasite collection, worldwide in coverage and with important medical and veterinary entomology components; the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) collections of Anoplura and Siphonaptera; the Carriker collection of Mallophaga (containing 650 type specimens of Neotropical species); the K.C. Emerson collection of Mallophaga; the Jellison collection of ectoparasites; and projects sampling mammals in Panama, Venezuela, and Africa have produced large additions to the ectoparasite collections. The collections are supplemented by the Entomological Illustration Archive, totaling over 5,000 illustrations created to support the research publications of Department entomologists.

Arachnid Collections – mites, ticks, spiders
Among the arachnid collections, the largest and most significant is the Acari (mite) Collection, currently housed at the USDA facility in Beltsville, Maryland. It is the finest in existence for mites parasitizing humans, animals, and plants. The collection includes over 332,000 slides and 1,925 primary types. Some of the most important type components include: the complete collection of H.E. Ewing; nearly complete collection of E.W. Baker and A.P. Jacot; important specimens of N. Banks; and type specimens representing all of the new species described by A. Fain from the Congo. The myriapod holdings rate second only to the Acarina, with special strength in New World specimens. The collection contains nearly all of the types of C.H. Bollman, R.V. Chamberlin, O.F. Cook, R.E. Crabill, R.L. Hoffman, H.F. Loomis, and J. McNeill. The Tick Collection was acquired by F.C. Bishopp and later combined with the collection of the Rocky Mountain Laboratory of the National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MO. The Chigger Collection (Trombiculidae) is housed at University of Hawaii at Manoa and the Phytoseiidae Collection is at Florida Department of Agriculture in Gainesville, Florida. The Spider Collection counts over 200,000 specimens, mostly from the New World, and has over 300 types. Notable collectors include: N. Banks, R.V. Chamberlin, H. Exline, I. Fox, E.V. Keyserling, G. Marx, A. Petrunkevitch, and E. Simon.

Coleoptera Collections – beetles, weevils
The Coleoptera Collection, numbering about 12 million specimens including 20,000 types, includes adult and immature beetles and is the largest beetle collection in the New World. The Coleoptera holdings include the T.L. Casey Collection, comprised of nearly 117,000 specimens representing over 20,000 species, including 9,200 types. Other important material comes from the collections of G.H. Dieke and R. Korschefsky (Coccinellidae); F. Monros (Chrysomelidae); J.D. Sherman (aquatic Coleoptera); F.F. Tippman (Cerambycidae); O.L. Cartwright (Scarabaeidae and Cicindelinae); and P. Spangler (aquatic Coleoptera). The collection of beetle larvae and pupae, acquired through the efforts of A.G. Boving, is worldwide in representation and one of the largest in existence. Most Scarabaeidae are housed at the University of Nebraska, State Museum.

Diptera Collections – flies, mosquitoes
The collections of Diptera rank among the most extensive in the world, with more than 8,059 drawers of pinned material, 8,538 boxes of slide-mounted specimens, 325 vial-units of specimens in alcohol and including about 20,500 primary types. Several large acquisitions, such as the collections of Charles P. Alexander (1,600,000 crane flies), S.W. Bromley (35,000), A.L. Melander (250,000), John N. Belkin (92,000), and A.E. Pritchard (27,000), have greatly expanded coverage. Among the families particularly well represented are the Asilidae, Tachinidae, Cecidomyiidae, Culicidae, Ephydroidea, and Tipulidae. The Department serves as the world center for mosquito research, hosting the Mosquitoes of Southeast Asia study and the Medical Entomology Project who have described over 100 new species of mosquitoes. The Mosquito Collection count more than 300,000 specimens including 1,200 primary types.

Hemiptera Collections – true bugs, cicadas, aphids, whiteflies
The Hemiptera Collection (Heteroptera plus Homoptera) is the largest in the world. Although New World holdings predominate, the Old World holdings are rapidly expanding. The collection incorporates many important private collections including: A.C. Baker, H.G. Barber, C.K. Brian, T.D.A. Cockerell, C.J. Drake (including the H. Hacker, M.S. Pennington, C.E. Reed collections), A. Fitch, W.D. Funkhouser, F.W. Goding, H.M. Harris, F.C. Hottes, H.H. Knight, N.A. Kormilev, W.L. McAtee, T. Pergande, P.R. Uhler, and, more recently, the J.T. Polhemus collection of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera, the J. Moldonado collection of Reduviidae, and the W. Ullrich collection. The Whitefly Collection (Aleyrodidae) is one of the world's best collections, with over 32,000 microscope slide-mounts representing more than 1,000 species, and an extensive collection of dry preserved material. The collection includes more than 300 primary types. The Aphidoidea Collection is the largest collection of aphidoids in North America, and one of the largest in the world. The collection contains more than 85,000 slides representing over 2,300 species. The subset Aphic Collection includes type material for 628 species, 268 holotypes and 28 lectotypes. The Coccoidea Collection (scale insects) consists of 140,000 slides and has 280 primary types as well as a large collection of unmounted dry material containing several million specimens.

Hymenoptera Collections – ants, bees, wasps
The Hymenoptera Collection consists of about 3 million specimens including pinned specimens stored in more than 7,000 drawers, approximately 10,000 vials of larvae and adults in alcohol, and includes over 15,000 holotypes. The collection represents about 15 percent of the total entomological collections, and is especially rich in Symphyta, aculeates, and entomophagous parasites from worldwide locations. Outstanding holdings include the W.H. Ashmead, C.F. Baker, P.D. Hurd, Jr., K.V. Krombein, W.M. Mann, M.R. Smith, and A.W. Stelfox collections.

Isoptera & Plecoptera Collections – termites, stone flies
The Termite (Isoptera) Collection has 240,000 specimens - the second largest in the world – includes 1,150 of the known 2,000 species, and 943 types. The Plecoptera Collection includes the Noel Hynes collection of stoneflies.

Lepidoptera Collections – butterflies, moths
The Lepidoptera Collection has over 4 million specimens, occupying over 27,000 drawers and 3,000 alcohol jars including 25,000 primary types. The collection has the most complete representation of both larvae (123,000 specimens) and adults in the Western Hemisphere. Included are 131 slide cabinets containing about 100,000 microscope slides, mainly of moth genitalia. The collection is particularly rich in Nearctic and Neotropical species as well as Palearctic material for most families. The microlepidoptera collection contains excellent coverage of Far Eastern species. Important holdings include: W. Barnes (450,000), A. Blanchard (60,000), A.E. Brower (115,000), P. Dognin (50,000), D.C. Ferguson (50,000), M. Gentili (12,000), S. Issiki (16,000), E. Jackh (55,000), A. Kawabe (22,000), and J. Robert (40,000).
Other important insect order holdings include Trichoptera, Thysanoptera, Plecoptera, Neuroptera, Isoptera, Mecoptera, Mallophaga, Anoplura, Siphonaptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Embioptera, Zoraptera, and Psocoptera. The Collection also includes the classes Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Arachnida, Symphyla, and Pauropoda.

Facilities
The Department of Entomology currently has the most modern insect collection facility in the world. Both dry and wet collections are housed in new, airtight, pest-proof, metal specimen cabinets, about half of which are on electric compactors. The collections are enhanced by specially constructed alcohol (wet collection) storage rooms and facilities for housing reprint libraries. Modern chemical storage facilities, compactorized equipment and supplies storage, walk-in and reach-in freezers, critical point dryers, and ventilated sorting center all support state-of-the-art collections care. The Department has several digital photographic stations (both AutoMontage and Microptics systems) for use by staff and researchers. The Entomology Molecular Systematics Laboratory, a shared facility managed by WRBU at the Museum Support Center, is also available for research investigations.

Fieldwork
Field studies are conducted in many parts of the United States, Mexico, Central and South America, the Asia-Pacific region, and, to a lesser extent, in Europe, Africa, and Australia. Smithsonian entomologists currently participate in long-term biodiversity survey projects in Costa Rica (Arthropods of La Selva), Peru, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and Kenya, among others. Past and present major projects in Sri Lanka, Peru, Madagascar, and Papua New Guinea have yielded millions of specimens for research. A series of canopy-fogging projects in Central and South America, initiated in 1974, has produced nearly 9 million specimens.

Publications
The Department of Entomology produces an average of 135 scientific publications per year, including journal articles, monographs, and books. Members of the Department traditionally serve as officers of the Entomological Society of Washington, which publishes the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington and the Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington. Departmental staff also serves as editors of these publications as well as others, including the Journal of the New York Entomological Society, Journal of the International Society of Hymenopterists, etc. The Department produces a monthly newsletter, Ent News, which is available in both hard-copy and electronically online.

Education and Outreach
The Department of Entomology has a proven history of training postdoctoral researchers as well as graduate and undergraduate students with special partnerships through the Smithsonian-University of Maryland MCSE (Maryland Center for Systematic Entomology) program and the Smithsonian-George Washington University graduate training program. Through a variety of other cooperative arrangements staff members act both formally and informally as advisors to graduate students and occasionally teach courses at universities both locally and abroad. Specimens are made available to students for thesis work through loans to their academic advisors and students and researchers are welcome to visit the entomology collections and facilities to conduct their investigations on-site.

Library
The Entomology Library contains over 23,000 volumes, including 120 journal subscriptions, on insect systematics, ecology, behavior, and related areas. The collection is especially rich in the areas of taxonomy and anatomy of insects and related arthropods, especially arachnids.

Programs & Affiliates

The Systematic Entomology Laboratory conducts research to develop comprehensive classification systems for insects and mites on a world basis; furnishes taxonomic services to Federal, state, and private organizations involved in research and action programs in agricultural, biological, and health sciences; cooperates with the Smithsonian Institution on a working basis in the continuing development and maintenance of a large portion of the U.S. National Entomological Collections; and develops information, storage, and retrieval systems for systematic and biological information. Contact: M. Alma Solis.

Founded in 1981, the Maryland Center for Systematic Entomology (MCSE) is a consortium for research and training in the systematics of insects and allied groups. Graduate students are enrolled in the Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, with a Smithsonian or USDA-SEL scientist as co-advisor. Research focus includes tropical biology, ecology, evolutionary biology, behavior, molecular systematics, and systematic methods, in addition to the systematics and biogeography of virtually all the major groups of terrestrial arthropods.

The Smithsonian-George Washington University graduate training program fosters collaborative research between GWU students, faculty and Smithsonian entomologists. The George Washington University, located in downtown Washington, DC, recently added four endowed chairs in systematics to their biology faculty. Through this partnership, graduate students are enrolled in the GW Department of Biology with a Smithsonian or USDA scientist as co-advisor. Research focus includes molecular and morphological systematics, paleontology, biogeography, physiology, and ecology of a wide range of organisms. Contact: Jonathan Coddington.

The mission of the Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit (WRBU) is to conduct systematics research on medically important arthropods and to maintain the U.S. mosquito collection. WRBU staff conducts laboratory and field research on the systematics of medically important arthropod species and species groups in support of epidemiological studies and disease-control strategies of importance to the military. Research efforts are carried out on a worldwide basis, with regionalization or faunistic restrictions dictated by available material and military requirements. In all cases, the primary goal of WRBU research efforts is the development of accurate and reliable means for identifying vectors of human arbopathogens. The WRBU is located at the Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland. Contact: Richard C. Wilkerson

RESEARCH STAFF

BURNS, John M., Curator of Lepidoptera. A.B. (1954) Johns Hopkins University; M.A. (1957), Ph.D. (1961) University of California, Berkeley. Research specialties: Evolutionary biology; systematics and population biology of Lepidoptera, chiefly Hesperioidea (skippers) and Papilionoidea; biological poetry.

CODDINGTON, Jonathan A., Senior Curator of Arachnida and Myriapoda. B.A. (1975) Yale; M.A. (1978), Ph.D. (1984) Harvard University. Research specialties: Systematics and behavior of spiders; species richness estimation; theory and design of biological inventories.

DAVIS, Donald R., Curator of Lepidoptera. B.A. (1956) University of Kansas; Ph.D. (1962) Cornell University. Research specialties: Systematics and phylogeny of the basal families of Lepidoptera including the superfamilies Tineoidea and Gracillarioidea; biology of leaf-mining and cave-dwelling moths.

ERWIN, Terry L., Curator of Coleoptera. B.A. (1964), M.A. (1966) San Jose State College; Ph.D. (1969) University of Alberta. Research specialties: Research specialties: Systematics, natural history, and zoogeography of world ground beetles (Carabidae); biodiversity aspects of Neotropical forest canopy insects and their allies; conservation of tropical forests..

MATHIS, Wayne N., Curator of Diptera. B.A. (1969) Brigham Young University; Ph.D. (1976) Oregon State University. Research specialties: Systematics, biology, and zoogeography of Canacidae, Tethrnidae, and Ephydroidea, with special emphasis on Ephydridae.

ROBBINS, Robert K., Curator of Lepidoptera. B.A. (1969) Brown University; Ph.D. (1978) Tufts University. Research specialties: Systematics of Lycaenidae, evolutionary biology of butterflies, patterns of butterfly diversity.

SCHULTZ, Ted R., Chairman, Department of Entomology and Curator of Hymenoptera. B.A. (1988) University of California, Berkeley; Ph.D. (1995) Cornell University. Research specialties: Evolution and systematics of ants, especially the fungus-growing ants (tribe Attini, subfamily Myrmicinae); historical ecology and evolution of the fungus-growing behavior; theory and method of phylogenetic analysis; quantitative methods for assessing ant biodiversity..

AFFILIATED RESEARCH STAFF

ADAMSKI, David, Entomologist, Systematic Entomology Lab., ARS-USDA. B.S. (1979), M.S. (1981) University of Massachusetts; Ph.D. (1987) Mississippi State University. Research specialties: Systematics of Gelechioidea, especially Blastobasinae, and related Microlepidoptera..

BRADY, Sean Gary, Research Entomologist. B.A. (1990) California Polytechnic University, Pomona; M.A. (1993) California State University, Fullerton; Ph.D. (2002) University of California, Davis. Research specialties: Phylogenetics, systematics, biogeography, and molecular evolution of ants and bees; social insect evolution; theory and methods of phylogenetic analysis.

BROWN, John W., Research Entomologist, Systematic Entomology Lab., ARS-USDA. B.S. (1983) San Diego State University; Ph.D. (1988) University of California, Berkeley. Research specialties: Systematics and biogeography of the moth family Tortricidae (Insecta: Lepidoptera); biogeography of the peninsula of Baja California; conservation biology; and faunal inventories.

BUFFINGTON, Matthew, Research Entomologist (USDA-SEL), Associate Curator of Hymenoptera. B.S. (1997) University of California, Riverside; M.S. (2000) Texas A&M; Ph.D. (2005) University of California, Riverside. Research specialties: Systematics of parasitic Hymenoptera, specifically the Cynipoidea, Proctotrupoidea and Platygastroidea; molecular systematics; digital imaging techniques envolving small insects.

CARLSON, Robert W., Service Scientist, Systematic Entomology Lab., ARS-USDA. B.A. (1962), M.S. (1963), Ph.D. (1968) University of Michigan. Research specialties: Par